Did you know?
Crohn’s disease is not limited to the gut. Extra-intestinal manifestations (EIMs) such as arthritis, skin rashes like erythema nodosum, and eye inflammation (uveitis) are common in up to 25% of Crohn’s patients. These EIMs complicate treatment and require coordinated care across multiple specialties.
I am a biochemist with a deep curiosity for the human microbiome and how it shapes human health, and I enjoy making microbiome science more accessible through research and writing. With 2 years experience in microbiome research, I have curated microbiome studies, analyzed microbial signatures, and now focus on interventions as a Microbiome Signatures and Interventions Research Coordinator.
Crohn’s disease is a chronic inflammatory condition of the gastrointestinal tract that can cause a wide range of symptoms, including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and fatigue. The exact cause of the disease remains unclear, but it is believed to result from a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors. Although there is no cure, ongoing advancements in medical research continue to improve management strategies and quality of life for those affected by Crohn’s disease.
I am a biochemist with a deep curiosity for the human microbiome and how it shapes human health, and I enjoy making microbiome science more accessible through research and writing. With 2 years experience in microbiome research, I have curated microbiome studies, analyzed microbial signatures, and now focus on interventions as a Microbiome Signatures and Interventions Research Coordinator.
I am a biochemist with a deep curiosity for the human microbiome and how it shapes human health, and I enjoy making microbiome science more accessible through research and writing. With 2 years experience in microbiome research, I have curated microbiome studies, analyzed microbial signatures, and now focus on interventions as a Microbiome Signatures and Interventions Research Coordinator.
Microbiome Signatures identifies and validates condition-specific microbiome shifts and interventions to accelerate clinical translation. Our multidisciplinary team supports clinicians, researchers, and innovators in turning microbiome science into actionable medicine.
Karen Pendergrass is a microbiome researcher specializing in microbiome-targeted interventions (MBTIs). She systematically analyzes scientific literature to identify microbial patterns, develop hypotheses, and validate interventions. As the founder of the Microbiome Signatures Database, she bridges microbiome research with clinical practice. In 2012, based on her own investigative research, she became the first documented case of FMT for Celiac Disease—four years before the first published case study.
Crohn’s disease (CD) is a chronic, relapsing inflammatory bowel disease characterized by patchy, transmural inflammation that can affect any part of the gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the anus. Pathologically, it often features non-caseating granulomas and segmental “skip” lesions, distinguishing it from the continuous lesions of ulcerative colitis.[1] CD is now understood as a systemic, immune-mediated condition triggered by an abnormal host immune response to the intestinal microbiome in a genetically susceptible individual.[2] Its complex pathophysiology involves a convergence of factors, including susceptibility genes, gut microbiota dysbiosis, epithelial barrier dysfunction, and environmental triggers, that together drive chronic mucosal inflammation.[3][4] The incidence of Crohn’s disease has risen globally, especially in newly industrialized regions, highlighting the influence of modern environmental and lifestyle factors on disease emergence.[5]
Associated Conditions
Crohn’s disease is a systemic inflammatory disorder that not only affects the gastrointestinal tract but also has widespread effects on other organ systems. Within the gastrointestinal system, CD can lead to various complications such as strictures, fistulas, abscesses, and intestinal perforations.[6][7] These complications arise due to the chronic inflammation of the intestinal wall, which can lead to scarring, deep tissue damage, and abnormal connections between parts of the intestine or between the intestine and other organs. CD is also associated with extraintestinal manifestations (EIMs) like arthritis, uveitis, and skin conditions such as erythema nodosum and pyoderma gangrenosum.[8] Patients with Crohn’s disease also face an increased risk of metabolic and nutritional complications, including malabsorption, malnutrition, and deficiencies in essential vitamins and minerals (e.g., vitamin B12, iron).[9] Conditions like primary sclerosing cholangitis and autoimmune hepatitis are also seen in some CD patients, highlighting the disease’s systemic nature.[10]
What conditions are associated with Crohn's Disease?
Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) and Spondyloarthritis
Inflammatory arthritis of the spine and sacroiliac joints – part of the axial spondyloarthritis spectrum – is the most common extraintestinal manifestation of Crohn’s disease.[11] Up to about one-quarter of IBD patients experience arthritic complications, including peripheral arthritis and AS.[12] Crohn’s and AS share substantial genetic overlap and immune pathways; in fact, they share more susceptibility loci with each other than any other IBD comorbidity. Both conditions are strongly tied to overactive Th17/IL-23 immune responses, and notably HLA-B27 (a genetic marker associated with AS) positive individuals with IBD are prone to sacroiliitis.[13] Mechanistic links via the microbiome have been proposed: for example, the hypothesis that Klebsiella pneumoniae from the gut may trigger reactive arthritis in genetically predisposed hosts (molecular mimicry) is supported by studies finding elevated anti-Klebsiella antibodies in subjects with AS and Crohn’s.[14]
Psoriasis
Psoriatic skin disease occurs at higher rates in IBD patients than in the general population. Crohn’s disease and psoriasis cluster in families and often co-manifest, reflecting common immune and genetic underpinnings.[15] Notably, genome-wide studies have identified at least 11 susceptibility loci shared between psoriasis and IBD, with four loci (including IL23R, IL12B, REL, and TYK2) showing especially strong overlap for Crohn’s disease.[16][17] Both conditions are driven by dysregulated Th17-cytokine activity, and therapies targeting these pathways are effective in both psoriasis and Crohn’s. The “gut–skin axis” concept suggests that intestinal dysbiosis and inflammation in Crohn’s may promote systemic immune changes that manifest in the skin. Conversely, some patients develop psoriasis as a side effect of IBD medications (e.g. anti-TNF therapy), further indicating intertwined immune mechanisms.[18]
Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis (PSC)
PSC is a fibroinflammatory cholangiopathy of the bile ducts that co-occurs in a subset of IBD patients. In Crohn’s disease, PSC is relatively rare, but its presence signifies a distinct clinical phenotype.[19] PSC–IBD exemplifies the gut–liver axis: patients with PSC and IBD harbor a distinct gut microbiome composition compared to IBD patients without PSC.[20]
Arthritis
Peripheral arthritis is another common extraintestinal manifestation of Crohn’s disease, affecting the large joints (such as knees, hips, and ankles).[21] The inflammation can be either asymmetrical or symmetrical, and in some cases, it may resolve with improvement of the gut symptoms. It is usually managed with NSAIDs, corticosteroids, and biologics.
Uveitis
Uveitis is inflammation of the middle layer of the eye (uvea). It is one of the most common ocular complications in Crohn’s disease, often associated with flare-ups of gastrointestinal symptoms.[22] Uveitis can lead to pain, blurred vision, and sensitivity to light. It is typically managed with corticosteroids or immunosuppressive agents.
Erythema Nodosum
Erythema nodosum is a type of inflammatory skin condition that causes painful, red, raised bumps, usually on the shins.[23] It is a common extraintestinal manifestation in Crohn’s disease and often correlates with active disease or flare-ups. Treatment typically involves managing the underlying disease and using anti-inflammatory medications.
Pyoderma Gangrenosum
Pyoderma gangrenosum is a rare, severe skin disorder that leads to the formation of deep, ulcerative lesions, most commonly on the legs. It is more commonly seen in patients with Crohn’s disease compared to other IBDs.[24] It is often treated with corticosteroids, immunosuppressive agents, or biologic therapies to control both the skin lesions and the underlying inflammation.
Autoimmune Hepatitis
Autoimmune hepatitis is a chronic liver condition where the immune system attacks liver cells, causing inflammation and potentially leading to cirrhosis. This condition can occur in patients with Crohn’s disease and may present with elevated liver enzymes, jaundice, and fatigue.[25] Treatment typically involves corticosteroids and immunosuppressive drugs.
Thromboembolism
Crohn’s disease patients, particularly those with active disease, have an increased risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE), including deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE).[26] This is partly due to inflammation-related changes in clotting factors and increased blood viscosity. Anticoagulation therapy may be necessary for management in affected individuals.
Nephrolithiasis
Crohn’s patients, especially those with small bowel involvement or those who have had surgery (e.g., ileal resection), are at an increased risk of developing kidney stones.[27] Adequate hydration and dietary changes are the primary preventive measures.
Osteoporosis and Osteopenia
Due to chronic inflammation, corticosteroid use, and malabsorption of key nutrients (such as calcium and vitamin D), Crohn’s disease patients are at increased risk of developing osteoporosis and osteopenia.[28]
Causes / Causal Theories
Crohn’s disease is believed to result from a confluence of genetic, microbial, immunologic, and environmental factors, rather than a single cause.[29] In a genetically predisposed host, triggers in the environment (such as dietary changes or infections) may disrupt the gut microbiome and mucosal barrier, leading to a maladaptive immune response in the intestine.[30] Several lines of evidence support this multifactorial model and have given rise to several key causal theories. Therapeutic responses highlight the importance of both microbes and immunity: for example, antibiotics targeting bacterial components and immunomodulators like thalidomide (an older drug repurposed for IBD) have both induced remission in Crohn’s patients.[31]
What are the current causal theories of Crohn's Disease?
Genetic Innate-Immune Deficiency
Crohn’s disease is often regarded as a genetically mediated disorder in which susceptibility genes predispose individuals to immune dysregulation. A key theory in understanding the pathogenesis of Crohn’s revolves around mutations in genes responsible for innate immunity. These genes, such as NOD2 (nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein 2), ATG16L1 (autophagy related 16-like 1), and IRGM (immunity-related GTPase family M), are involved in recognizing and defending against bacterial components in the gut.[32][33]
For instance, NOD2, a pattern recognition receptor, plays a crucial role in detecting bacterial peptidoglycans.[34] Mutations in this gene are one of the most well-established risk factors for Crohn’s disease, particularly ileal disease. Individuals with these mutations show a reduced ability to clear bacteria in the intestine, leading to microbial dysbiosis (imbalanced gut microbiome) and increased gut inflammation.[35] This immune deficiency causes the body to respond improperly to harmless commensal bacteria, triggering an exaggerated immune response and sustained intestinal inflammation
Microbial Dysbiosis (Pathobiont Overgrowth)
A leading theory in the pathogenesis of Crohn’s disease is microbial dysbiosis, which refers to an imbalance in the gut microbiome that promotes inflammation.[36] In Crohn’s disease, microbiome balance is disrupted, leading to the overgrowth of pathobionts and a reduction in beneficial microbes.[37]
Pathobionts such as Adherent-Invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC) are frequently found in the intestines of Crohn’s patients, particularly in ileal disease, where they invade the intestinal epithelium, persist within macrophages, and promote an inflammatory response.[38] At the same time, beneficial microbes such as Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, a butyrate-producing bacterium, are often depleted in Crohn’s disease.[39] Butyrate plays a crucial role in maintaining intestinal homeostasis by providing energy to colonocytes and modulating immune responses.[40] Its reduction leads to impaired mucosal healing and exacerbates inflammation.
Mycobacterial Infection (MAP Hypothesis)
The Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) hypothesis posits that Crohn’s disease may be triggered or sustained by an infection with this specific microorganism, which causes Johne’s disease in cattle. MAP has been detected in the intestinal tissues of some Crohn’s patients, leading researchers to speculate that an infection by MAP could initiate the immune response seen in Crohn’s disease.[41]
This theory is grounded in the idea that in genetically susceptible individuals, the immune system’s chronic response to MAP, a bacterium that can survive in macrophages, triggers a cascade of inflammatory responses.[42]
Western Lifestyle and Hygiene Hypothesis
The Western lifestyle and hygiene hypothesis suggest that environmental factors associated with industrialized societies, such as improved sanitation, a Western diet, and reduced childhood infections, have contributed to the rising incidence of Crohn’s disease, particularly in newly industrialized countries.[43] Further supporting this theory, studies have shown that migrants from low-incidence to high-incidence countries tend to adopt the higher risk of their new environment within one or two generations, suggesting that lifestyle factors play a significant role in the development of the disease.[44]
Diagnosis
There is no single test that diagnoses Crohn’s disease at the moment. The accepted diagnostic approach is a combination of clinical evaluation and multiple modalities (“multiple hits”): endoscopic evidence of focal, chronic ulceration (often with normal intervening areas), histological confirmation of chronic active inflammation (with granulomas if present), imaging of the small bowel to assess extent, and exclusion of infections or alternate causes.[45] Newer tools like capsule endoscopy can visualize the small intestine for lesions, and intestinal ultrasound is emerging in some centers as a radiation-free monitoring tool. Once diagnosis is established, clinicians typically classify Crohn’s by location and behavior (using the Montreal or Paris classification), as these have prognostic significance, and they may utilize experimental markers to stratify disease or guide therapy in the future.[46]
Primer
Crohn’s disease is a complex, chronic inflammatory condition primarily affecting the gastrointestinal tract. The disease is driven by a dysregulated immune response to the gut microbiome, leading to chronic inflammation, tissue damage, and complications like strictures and fistulas.[47] Microbial dysbiosis plays a central role in disease initiation and progression, influencing both immune activation and intestinal permeability.[48] Disruptions in metal homeostasis, particularly in trace elements such as zinc and iron, contribute to inflammation and microbial shifts, creating a cycle that perpetuates disease activity.[49][50] The combination of immune system abnormalities, microbiome alterations, and metallomic imbalances underscores the systemic nature of Crohn’s disease, providing a deeper understanding of its pathogenesis and highlighting emerging opportunities for microbiome-based diagnostics and personalized therapies.
Metabolomic Signatures
Crohn’s disease is associated with distinctive shifts in metabolism – many driven by an imbalanced gut microbiome. Patients with CD exhibit broad disturbances in their metabolite profiles, in keeping with the dysbiosis observed in the gut microbiota.[51] In health, gut bacteria produce beneficial compounds (like short-chain fatty acids) and regulate bile acids and amino acids; in Crohn’s, these pathways are often disrupted.[52]
What are the key metabolomic alterations in Crohn's disease?
Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)
Levels of SCFAs (e.g. butyrate, acetate), which are normally produced by fiber-fermenting gut bacteria and fuel intestinal cells, are typically reduced in Crohn’s patients.[53] Loss of butyrate-producing taxa (like Faecalibacterium and Roseburia) leads to less butyrate in the colon, impairing mucosal energy supply and anti-inflammatory signaling.[54] This deficiency in SCFAs is linked to a weakened intestinal barrier and dysregulated immune homeostasis.[55]
Succinate
Crohn’s dysbiosis often causes an accumulation of succinate, a microbial fermentation intermediate. In a healthy colon, succinate is usually transient (quickly consumed by other microbes), maintaining very low levels. In active Crohn’s, succinate can build up to millimolar concentrations.[56] Excess succinate is pro-inflammatory – it activates mucosal immune responses via the SUCNR1 receptor, drives macrophage and T-cell metabolic changes, and can stabilize HIF-1α, promoting inflammatory cytokine production.[57] This makes succinate a notable microbiome-derived pro-inflammatory metabolite in CD.
Tryptophan Metabolites
The gut microbiota normally metabolizes tryptophan (an amino acid from diet) into various indoles and other compounds that interact with the host immune system (for example, activating the aryl hydrocarbon receptor to promote regulatory immune pathways). In Crohn’s disease, beneficial tryptophan-derived indoles are often decreased due to loss of key microbes, while other potentially harmful tryptophan metabolites may accumulate.[58]
Bile Acids
Crohn’s disease (especially with ileal involvement) disrupts bile acid metabolism. Normally, gut bacteria transform conjugated primary bile acids (synthesized by the liver) into secondary bile acids. In Crohn’s, a reduction in bile acid-transforming microbes leads to an overabundance of primary bile acids and a depletion of certain secondary bile acids in the intestines.[59] Studies have found that fecal samples from IBD patients have increased conjugated primary bile acids and markedly lower levels of secondary bile acids like deoxycholic acid (DCA) and lithocholic acid (LCA).[60] These changes can affect inflammation – for example, some secondary bile acids have anti-inflammatory or regulatory effects in the gut, and their deficiency may perpetuate intestinal inflammation. Meanwhile, excess primary bile acids in the colon can irritate the mucosa and contribute to diarrhea.
Metallomic Signatures
Trace metal imbalances are a hallmark of Crohn’s disease, arising from both malabsorption and the body’s own immune responses that alter metal distribution. Zinc, iron, and copper in particular show disturbed levels in Crohn’s patients, and these imbalances influence both host immunity and the gut microbial ecosystem. Crohn’s disease entails significant disturbances in trace metals: iron and zinc are sequestered by the host to inhibit microbes, leading to deficiencies, while certain bacteria deploy strategies to acquire these metals, influencing microbial composition. These imbalances (or “mismetalation”) impact disease pathogenesis.
What are the metallomic signatures of Crohn's disease
Iron
Iron deficiency is very common in Crohn’s disease due to chronic intestinal blood loss and reduced absorption (especially if the duodenum is bypassed or inflamed). Many patients develop iron deficiency anemia.[61] Paradoxically, during active inflammation the body increases production of hepcidin (an inflammatory hormone) which locks iron away in storage sites, lowering serum iron.[62] While this helps limit bacterial growth, it worsens anemia. In the gut lumen, low iron availability can shift microbial populations: pathogens like E. coli often have competitive advantages in low-iron environments by producing high-affinity siderophores (iron-scavenging molecules).[63] Indeed, Crohn’s-associated adherent-invasive E. coli (AIEC) secrete siderophores (e.g. enterobactin and yersiniabactin) to capture iron and other metals, allowing them to thrive during inflammation.[64] These E. coli can evade host iron-sequestration defenses – for example, the host releases Lipocalin-2 to bind enterobactin, but AIEC often produce “stealth” siderophores like yersiniabactin that Lipocalin-2 cannot neutralize.[65] The result is a metallomic milieu in Crohn’s wherein iron is scarce for commensals but accessible to pathogens with specialized iron uptake systems.
Zinc
Zinc levels are frequently low in Crohn’s patients as well. Causes include malabsorption (especially with small bowel disease), high intestinal losses, and poor dietary intake.[66] Zinc is critical for immune function and epithelial healing; deficiency can impair gut barrier repair and immune cell function. However, during intestinal inflammation the body actively sequesters zinc as a defense: neutrophils release calprotectin, a protein that binds and removes zinc (and manganese).[67] This zinc withholding is another aspect of nutritional immunity, by limiting zinc, the host tries to inhibit bacterial growth (many microbes need zinc to survive). A side effect is that systemic zinc levels drop. Meanwhile, certain bacteria have evolved mechanisms to acquire zinc despite host defenses. For example, yersiniabactin not only chelates iron but can bind zinc and copper as well, potentially helping AIEC and other pathogens scavenge these metals in the inflamed gut.[68][69] The net effect in Crohn’s is a distorted zinc distribution: low serum zinc, high fecal zinc bound to calprotectin, and microbial competition for any available zinc. This mismetalation can worsen inflammation – zinc deficiency weakens antioxidant defenses and barrier integrity, yet excess free zinc in the gut (if supplementation is overdone) might fuel pathobionts.
Copper
In active Crohn’s, serum copper is often elevated as part of the acute phase response, the liver increases production of ceruloplasmin during inflammation, raising copper levels in blood. Consequently, the copper-to-zinc ratio in plasma tends to be high in active IBD, and this ratio correlates with disease activity (higher ratio with more inflammation).[70] Despite high serum copper, Crohn’s patients can experience functional copper deficiency if malabsorption is severe (since copper is absorbed in the upper small intestine). [71]Low copper could contribute to anemia (copper is needed for iron metabolism) and neutropenia, though overt copper deficiency is less common than iron or zinc deficits.[72] From a microbial standpoint, copper is a double-edged sword: it is an essential micronutrient but also toxic in excess. The host immune system sometimes exploits copper’s toxicity by pumping copper into phagolysosomes to kill bacteria.[73]Some gut bacteria (like Enterococcus faecalis or E. coli) carry copper export pumps or resistance genes to survive; an imbalance in copper might thus alter which microbes flourish.[74]
Nutritional Immunity and Supplementation Paradoxes
The concept of nutritional immunity, which is the host’s strategy of withholding nutrients (like metals) to combat pathogens, is key to understanding some paradoxical findings in Crohn’s disease.[75] The immune system actively alters nutrient availability during inflammation: as noted, it hides away iron and zinc, creating an unfriendly environment for bacteria. This is beneficial in controlling infection, but in Crohn’s, it also contributes to micronutrient deficiencies. Attempts to correct these deficiencies through supplementation can yield unexpected results, sometimes worsening inflammation or dysbiosis if not done carefully. Nutritional immunity and Crohn’s create a delicate balance: the body’s efforts to protect itself by sequestering nutrients can lead to deficiencies, and reversing those deficiencies isn’t as simple as giving high-dose supplements.
What Nutritional Immunity factors and paradoxes in Crohn's disease?
Iron Supplementation
Iron is needed to treat Crohn’s-related anemia, yet giving iron (especially orally) can aggravate the disease. Excess free iron in the gut can catalyze the formation of reactive oxygen species (via Fenton reactions), increasing oxidative stress in the already inflamed intestinal lining.[76] Moreover, additional luminal iron may feed pro-inflammatory bacteria – E. coli and other opportunists bloom when iron is abundant, potentially exacerbating dysbiosis.[77] Clinical studies have observed that oral iron can elevate fecal calprotectin (an inflammation marker) and disrupt the microbiota in IBD patients.[78] In fact, the need for iron repletion “exacerbates the dysbiosis” in Crohn’s, creating a vicious cycle. To navigate this, current practice often favors intravenous iron for Crohn’s patients with active disease, delivering iron directly to the bloodstream restores levels without flooding the gut with iron.[79] This approach avoids feeding gut microbes and bypasses the inflamed intestinal absorption pathways. Thus, the paradox is that while iron is essential to the patient, in the context of an inflamed gut more iron can mean more inflammation.
Zinc Supplementation
Zinc deficiency can impair wound healing and immunity, so one might assume supplementing zinc would always be helpful in Crohn’s. However, excess zinc can have adverse effects. In a mouse study of C. difficile-associated colitis, for example, excess dietary zinc worsened inflammation and disease severity.[80] The mechanism relates to nutritional immunity: normally, calprotectin from neutrophils binds zinc to keep it away from pathogens like in colitis.[81] If the diet massively increases zinc, this host defense can be overwhelmed, leaving more free zinc for pathogens and disrupting the normal microbial balance. So, despite low serum zinc in Crohn’s being linked to worse outcomes (and supplementation often being necessary), giving large doses of zinc might paradoxically fuel intestinal inflammation in some contexts.
Microbiome Signature: Crohn’s Disease
Interventions
Beyond conventional therapies, a range of emerging and non-mainstream interventions are being explored for Crohn’s disease – often aiming to target the microbiome, dietary factors, or novel pathways of inflammation. Given the central role of gut bacteria in Crohn’s, therapies that alter the microbiome are a major focus. These approaches are in early clinical trials or have mechanistic support in research.
What novel interventions exist for Crohn's disease?
Bacteriophage therapy
This involves using viruses that infect bacteria to selectively eliminate harmful microbes. For instance, researchers have developed phage cocktails targeting Adherent-Invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC). In mouse models, orally administered phages against AIEC significantly reduced the burden of these bacteria and alleviated intestinal inflammation.[82] These findings have led to early-phase clinical trials of AIEC-targeted phage therapy in Crohn’s patients.[83] The goal is to “rebalance” the microbiome by removing a pathogenic strain without broad antibiotics – a narrow-spectrum antimicrobial approach
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics
These would suppress specific pro-inflammatory microbes (such as Fusobacterium or E. coli) while sparing beneficial flora. One example is anti-MAP therapy, a combination antibiotic regimen aimed at Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis, a bacterium hypothesized to trigger Crohn’s in some patients, although results have been mixed.[84]
Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy (HBOT)
In HBOT, patients breathe 100% oxygen in a high-pressure chamber, has shown promise for difficult Crohn’s cases. The idea is that flooding tissues with oxygen aids healing of chronic wounds and reduces inflammation (hypoxia in gut tissues is thought to drive inflammation).[85] There is evidence that HBOT can help heal complex perianal fistulas and reduce Crohn’s disease activity in refractory patients.[86] For perianal Crohn’s, where options are limited, HBOT achieved notable fistula closure rates in some studies.[87] It is considered safe and is usually used as an adjunct to standard therapy in research settings.
In addition to the Phase 2–3 trials in Crohn’s, a wave of therapies that target specific immune and microbial pathways is being brought forward: IL-23 p19 inhibitors and S1P modulators are leading the pack with positive trial results, and others like JAK inhibitors and novel biologics are close behind.[88] The hope is that within the next few years, these will expand the toolkit for Crohn’s, allowing more personalized and effective treatment regimens.
FAQs
Is Crohn’s disease curable?
At present, Crohn’s disease cannot be cured – not in the sense of eliminating it forever. It is a chronic (lifelong) condition. However, it can be brought into remission and kept there for long periods, during which a person may feel completely well. The goal of therapy is exactly that: lasting remission and healing of the intestines. Some patients achieve remission that lasts many years, especially with effective treatment and lifestyle adjustments, but the underlying tendency for inflammation is still there, meaning flares can occur if treatment is withdrawn or due to unknown triggers. Unlike ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s usually cannot be cured by surgery either. In UC, removing the colon essentially cures the disease (albeit at the cost of losing the colon). In Crohn’s, surgery can remove diseased sections, but the inflammation often returns at the margins of where the tissue was removed or in other GI locations (for example, after an ileal resection, many patients get recurrence at the new ileocolonic junction). There are cases of clinical cure – someone has surgery and never has issues again, or very mild disease controlled with minimal meds – but this is more the exception than the rule. The chronic nature also relates to its autoimmune character; like other autoimmune diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, etc.), Crohn’s tends to require ongoing management. The encouraging news is that with modern treatments, many patients achieve deep remission (no symptoms, normal lab tests, healed mucosa on colonoscopy). Some are effectively “disease-free” while on therapy, which raises the question: if you’ve been in remission 10+ years on a biologic, are you essentially cured as long as you continue the drug? It’s a semantic point – the disease is controlled but not eradicated. Researchers are searching for cures, possibly through early intervention, resetting the immune system, or targeted microbial therapies, but so far, no intervention has reliably cured Crohn’s. Therefore, patients and doctors focus on control, not cure: using medication, diet, sometimes surgery, and other strategies to keep the disease in check such that the person can live a full, healthy life. It’s worth noting that the vast majority of Crohn’s patients can live normal lifespans, and many have long stretches of good health – so while it isn’t “curable” today, it is very treatable.
Is Crohn’s disease caused by stress?
Crohn’s is not caused by stress. It is a biological disease of the immune system and gut, driven by factors like genetics, intestinal microbiome, and environmental triggers (such as smoking or perhaps diet). However, stress can influence Crohn’s symptoms and possibly trigger flares in someone who already has the disease. Many patients report that during times of high stress (e.g. major life events, anxiety, etc.), their digestive symptoms worsen. Stress can affect gut motility, permeability, and the immune system (via stress hormones), which might exacerbate inflammation or make one more susceptible to a flare-up. But it’s important to understand that Crohn’s is not a psychosomatic illness – you do not get Crohn’s because you were under stress, and conversely, a calm life will not completely prevent Crohn’s if the underlying disease process is there. In the mid-20th century, Crohn’s (and ulcerative colitis) were at times thought to be “stress-related” illnesses; we now know that while mind-gut interactions are real, the root causes lie in immune dysregulation and gut flora. Bottom line: Stress is considered a modulating factor, not the primary cause. Managing stress through mindfulness, therapy, or relaxation techniques can be a helpful part of comprehensive care (since it may improve one’s overall well-being and potentially reduce symptom frequency), but it cannot replace medical treatment for the inflammation. Patients should feel reassured that Crohn’s is not “their fault” for being stressed – it’s an organic disease. That said, good stress management and mental health care are an important adjunct since living with a chronic illness can itself be stressful, creating a cycle that’s worth breaking.
What is the difference between Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis?
Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis (UC) are the two main forms of inflammatory bowel disease, but they affect the gut differently. Crohn’s can involve any part of the gastrointestinal tract from mouth to anus, often in a patchy “skip lesion” distribution, and inflammation goes through the entire wall of the bowel. This means Crohn’s can cause strictures, deep ulcers, and fistulas (tunnels to other organs). Ulcerative colitis, by contrast, is limited to the colon and rectum and is continuous (starting at the rectum and extending upward) – it only affects the innermost mucosal layer of the colon. So UC causes superficial ulcers and bleeding in the colon but typically not fistulas or thick scarring. In terms of symptoms, both can cause abdominal pain and diarrhea, but UC more often has bloody diarrhea, whereas Crohn’s might have more variable symptoms (sometimes fatty diarrhea if the small bowel is involved, weight loss, nutritional deficiencies, etc.). Systemic features like fevers and weight loss occur in both, but are often pronounced in Crohn’s when the small intestine is affected leading to malabsorption. Another difference is seen in endoscopy: Crohn’s has a cobblestone appearance with normal areas between patches of disease, while UC has a uniform, diffuse inflammation. Pathology can also distinguish them (Crohn’s has granulomas on biopsy ~ in some cases, and UC does not, and UC has crypt abscesses in the mucosa). Distinguishing Crohn’s from UC is important because it affects treatment (for example, surgery can potentially cure UC by removing the colon, but in Crohn’s, surgery is not curative because disease can recur elsewhere).
Research Feed
Diagnostic Procedures for Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Laboratory, Endoscopy, Pathology, Imaging, and Beyond
Did you know? Crohn’s disease is not limited to the gut. Extra-intestinal manifestations (EIMs) such as arthritis, skin rashes like erythema nodosum, and eye inflammation (uveitis) are common in up to 25% of Crohn’s patients. These EIMs complicate treatment and require coordinated care across multiple specialties.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Crohn’s disease is not limited to the gut. Extra-intestinal manifestations (EIMs) such as arthritis, skin rashes like erythema nodosum, and eye inflammation (uveitis) are common in up to 25% of Crohn’s patients. These EIMs complicate treatment and require coordinated care across multiple specialties.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Did you know? Crohn’s disease is not limited to the gut. Extra-intestinal manifestations (EIMs) such as arthritis, skin rashes like erythema nodosum, and eye inflammation (uveitis) are common in up to 25% of Crohn’s patients. These EIMs complicate treatment and require coordinated care across multiple specialties.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Microbiome Insiders can read two study summaries for any topic on Microbiome.
Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Nutritional immunity restricts metal access to pathogens, leveraging sequestration, transport, and toxicity to control infections and immunity.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Anti-Mycobacterium paratuberculosis (MAP) therapy for Crohn’s disease: an overview and update
July 28, 2020
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Did you know? Americans are over three times more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases compared to the global average, with approximately 16.67% of the U.S. population affected versus 5% worldwide.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
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Crohn\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s Disease major
Crohn's disease is a chronic inflammatory condition of the gastrointestinal tract that can cause a wide range of symptoms, including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and fatigue. The exact cause of the disease remains unclear, but it is believed to result from a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors. Although there is no cure, ongoing advancements in medical research continue to improve management strategies and quality of life for those affected by Crohn's disease.
Crohn’s Disease
Crohn's disease is a chronic inflammatory condition of the gastrointestinal tract that can cause a wide range of symptoms, including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and fatigue. The exact cause of the disease remains unclear, but it is believed to result from a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors. Although there is no cure, ongoing advancements in medical research continue to improve management strategies and quality of life for those affected by Crohn's disease.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Crohn’s Disease
Crohn's disease is a chronic inflammatory condition of the gastrointestinal tract that can cause a wide range of symptoms, including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and fatigue. The exact cause of the disease remains unclear, but it is believed to result from a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental factors. Although there is no cure, ongoing advancements in medical research continue to improve management strategies and quality of life for those affected by Crohn's disease.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Metals
Heavy metals play a significant and multifaceted role in the pathogenicity of microbial species.
Nutritional Immunity
Nutritional immunity restricts metal access to pathogens, leveraging sequestration, transport, and toxicity to control infections and immunity.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Autoimmune Diseases
Autoimmune disease is when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's tissues, often linked to imbalances in the microbiome, which can disrupt immune regulation and contribute to disease development.
Altered fecal bile acid composition in active ulcerative colitis..
Sommersberger, S., Gunawan, S., Elger, T., Fererberger, T., Loibl, J., Huss, M., Kandulski, A., Krautbauer, S., Müller, M., Liebisch, G., Buechler, C., & Tews, H. C. (2023)..
(Lipids in Health and Disease, 22, 199.)
The Role of IL-23 Inhibitors in Crohn’s Disease..
Fanizza, J., Lusetti, F., Fasulo, E., Allocca, M., Furfaro, F., Zilli, A., Parigi, T. L., Radice, S., Peyrin-Biroulet, L., Danese, S., Fiorino, G., Fanizza, J., Lusetti, F., Fasulo, E., Allocca, M., Furfaro, F., Zilli, A., Parigi, T. L., Radice, S., . . . Fiorino, G. (2023)..
(Journal of Clinical Medicine, 13(1).)
Calvez, V., Puca, P., Vincenzo, F. D., Gaudio, A. D., Bartocci, B., Murgiano, M., Iaccarino, J., Parand, E., Napolitano, D., Pugliese, D., Gasbarrini, A., & Scaldaferri, F. (2025).
Chhibba, T., Gros, B., King, J. A., Windsor, J. W., Gorospe, J., Leibovitzh, H., Xue, M., Turpin, W., Croitoru, K., Ananthakrishnan, A. N., Gearry, R. B., & Kaplan, G. G. (2025).
Jeong, H., Choi, J. S., Kim, J. W., Kim, H. M., Kim, S., Im, J. P., Kim, J. S., Kim, Y. S., Cheon, J. H., Kim, W. H., Ye, B. D., Kim, H., Han, D. S., Jeong, H., Choi, J. S., Kim, J. W., Kim, H. M., Kim, S., Im, J. P., . . . Han, D. S. (2020).
Faggiani, I., Fanizza, J., Allocca, M., Zilli, A., Parigi, T. L., Barchi, A., Danese, S., Furfaro, F., Faggiani, I., Fanizza, J., Allocca, M., Zilli, A., Parigi, T. L., Barchi, A., Danese, S., & Furfaro, F. (2024).
Faggiani, I., Fanizza, J., Allocca, M., Zilli, A., Parigi, T. L., Barchi, A., Danese, S., Furfaro, F., Faggiani, I., Fanizza, J., Allocca, M., Zilli, A., Parigi, T. L., Barchi, A., Danese, S., & Furfaro, F. (2024).
Kang, H. S., Han, K. M., Kim, H., Yoo, D. M., Choi, H. G., Kim, N. Y., Min, W., Kwon, M. J., Kang, H. S., Han, K. M., Kim, H., Yoo, D. M., Choi, H. G., Kim, N. Y., Min, W., & Kwon, M. J. (2025).
Faggiani, I., Fanizza, J., Allocca, M., Zilli, A., Parigi, T. L., Barchi, A., Danese, S., Furfaro, F., Faggiani, I., Fanizza, J., Allocca, M., Zilli, A., Parigi, T. L., Barchi, A., Danese, S., & Furfaro, F. (2024).
Liu, J. Z., Jellbauer, S., Poe, A., Ton, V., Pesciaroli, M., Kehl-Fie, T., Restrepo, N. A., Hosking, M., Edwards, R. A., Battistoni, A., Pasquali, P., Lane, T. E., Chazin, W. J., Vogl, T., Roth, J., Skaar, E. P., & Raffatellu, M. (2012).
Piotrowicz, G., Kot, J., Babicki, A., Banaszkiewicz, P., Piotrowicz, A., Rzeszutek, M., Rudnik, A., Zientara, P., Adamska-Mieruszewska, J., & Rydzewska, G. (2024).
A microbiome signature is defined through a comprehensive approach that integrates differential abundance analysis across multiple datasets, followed by interpretation for biological relevance. This rigorous process ensures that the identified signature is both statistically robust and biologically meaningful. Associations that do not meet statistical significance or lack mechanistic relevance are excluded from the final signature.
Relative Abundance (Class)
A microbiome signature is defined through a comprehensive approach that integrates differential abundance analysis across multiple datasets, followed by interpretation for biological relevance. This rigorous process ensures that the identified signature is both statistically robust and biologically meaningful. Associations that do not meet statistical significance or lack mechanistic relevance are excluded from the final signature.
Relative Abundance (Family)
A microbiome signature is defined through a comprehensive approach that integrates differential abundance analysis across multiple datasets, followed by interpretation for biological relevance. This rigorous process ensures that the identified signature is both statistically robust and biologically meaningful. Associations that do not meet statistical significance or lack mechanistic relevance are excluded from the final signature.
Relative Abundance (Genus)
A microbiome signature is defined through a comprehensive approach that integrates differential abundance analysis across multiple datasets, followed by interpretation for biological relevance. This rigorous process ensures that the identified signature is both statistically robust and biologically meaningful. Associations that do not meet statistical significance or lack mechanistic relevance are excluded from the final signature.
Relative Abundance (Kingdom)
A microbiome signature is defined through a comprehensive approach that integrates differential abundance analysis across multiple datasets, followed by interpretation for biological relevance. This rigorous process ensures that the identified signature is both statistically robust and biologically meaningful. Associations that do not meet statistical significance or lack mechanistic relevance are excluded from the final signature.
Relative Abundance (Order)
A microbiome signature is defined through a comprehensive approach that integrates differential abundance analysis across multiple datasets, followed by interpretation for biological relevance. This rigorous process ensures that the identified signature is both statistically robust and biologically meaningful. Associations that do not meet statistical significance or lack mechanistic relevance are excluded from the final signature.
Relative Abundance (Phylum)
A microbiome signature is defined through a comprehensive approach that integrates differential abundance analysis across multiple datasets, followed by interpretation for biological relevance. This rigorous process ensures that the identified signature is both statistically robust and biologically meaningful. Associations that do not meet statistical significance or lack mechanistic relevance are excluded from the final signature.
I am a biochemist with a deep curiosity for the human microbiome and how it shapes human health, and I enjoy making microbiome science more accessible through research and writing. With 2 years experience in microbiome research, I have curated microbiome studies, analyzed microbial signatures, and now focus on interventions as a Microbiome Signatures and Interventions Research Coordinator. 
Research feed 
Karen Pendergrass is a microbiome researcher specializing in microbiome-targeted interventions (MBTIs). She systematically analyzes scientific literature to identify microbial patterns, develop hypotheses, and validate interventions. As the founder of the Microbiome Signatures Database, she bridges microbiome research with clinical practice. In 2012, based on her own investigative research, she became the first documented case of FMT for Celiac Disease—four years before the first published case study. 
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